Lower back pain: Difference between revisions

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==Background==
| Cause
*May also be called lumbago, referring to pain in the muscles and joints of the lower back
| Patient
*Pain lasting > 6 weeks is risk factor for more serious disease
| Onset
*Night pain and unrelenting pain are worrisome symptoms
| Radiation
*Back pain in IV drug user is spinal infection until proven otherwise
| Exam
*95% of herniated discs occur at L4-L5 or L5-S1 (for both pain extends below the knee)
| Evaluation
| Treatment
|-
| Fracture
|
Malignancy


Osteoporosis
{{Back pain red flags}}
| Acute-subacute
| Rare
| Localized pain
| xray
|
Pain meds


Refer/admit
==Clinical Features==
|-
{{Symptoms by Causes of Back Pain}}
| Malignancy
[[File:Lumbar_Nerve_Root_Compromise.jpg|thumb|Lumbar nerve root distribution]]
|
Hx of cancer


Age > 50
{{Waddell's Signs of Non-Organic Back Pain}}


Pain > 1 mo
==Differential Diagnosis==
[[File:Back_Pain.png|thumb|Differential diagnosis of back pain]]
{{Lower back pain DDX}}


Incr. severity
==Evaluation==
| Subacute
===Exam===
| Yes with epidural mets
*Straight leg raise testing
| +/- decr neuro
**Screening exam for a herniated disk (Sn 68-80%)
|
**Lifting leg causes radicular pain of affected leg radiating to BELOW the knee
xray
**Pain is worsened by ankle dorsiflexion
**Pain may be relieved by pressing across biceps femoris and pes anserinus tendons behind knee ('bowstringing')
*Crossed Straight leg raise testing (high Sp, low Sn)
**Lifting the asymptomatic leg causes radicular pain down the affected leg
*Nerve root compromise
*Rectal exam, perineal sensation, palpable bladder?
**To rule out [[cauda equina syndrome]]


ESR
===Labs===
*Pregnancy test
*Only necessary if concerned for infection, tumor, or rheumatologic cause
**CBC, UA, ESR (90-98% Sn for infectious etiology)
*Consider post void residual
**Can be done with non invasively with [[Bladder ultrasound|Ultrasound]]


MRI/CT-M
===Imaging===
|
*Multiple institutions advise '''against''' routine initial imaging of the lumbar spine in adults with acute non-traumatic low back pain, in the absence of severe progressive neurologic deficit, absence of red flags, and if <6 weeks in duration.<ref>ACEP - Lumbar spine imaging in the ED | Choosing Wisely. October 27, 2014. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/clinician-lists/acep-lumbar-spine-imaging-in-the-ed/</ref><ref>American College of Physicians. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. February 24, 2015. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-college-of-physicians/</ref><ref>American Academy of Family Physicians. Twenty Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. 2021. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-academy-of-family-physicians/</ref><ref>American Society of Anesthesiologists. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2019. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-society-of-anesthesiologists-pain-medicine/</ref><ref>American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2022. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-college-of-occupational-and-environmental-medicine/</ref><ref>American Association of Neurological Surgeons and Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published June 24, 2014. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-association-of-neurological-surgeons-and-congress-of-neurological-surgeons/</ref><ref>American Chiropractic Association. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2021. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-chiropractic-association/</ref><ref>Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2022. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/north-american-spine-society/</ref>
Steroids
**Part of [[Choosing wisely ACEP|ACEP Choosing wisely ]]


Admit
*Plain films
|-
**May consider if suspect fracture, tumor, or infection, however, of low utility.
| Infection
*CT
|
**Better for identification of fractures.
Immunocomp
*MRI
**Only necessary if suspect infection, neoplasm, [[epidural compression syndromes]]
**Consider for back pain >6-8wks, progressive neurologic deficit, or presence of red flags
**'''Gold Standard:''' if [[cauda equina syndrome]] is suspected
*Ultrasound
**Rule-out [[Aortic ultrasound|AAA]]


IVDA
==Management==
===Acute, Non-traumatic, Non-Radicular Back Pain===
*Instruct to continue daily activities using pain as limiting factor
*Recommend at home stretches
*Medications
**[[Acetaminophen]] and/or [[NSAIDs]]
***1st line therapy
***Consider gel/patch like [[Diclofenac|diclofenac]] or [[Ketoprofen|ketoprofen]] (shown to be more effective than PO form and placebo in one study<ref>Mazières B, Rouanet S, Velicy J, et al. Topical ketoprofen patch (100 mg) for the treatment of ankle sprain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:515-523</ref>)
**[[Lidocaine]] patch
**[[Capsaicin]] or Cayenne
***Skin desensitization upon repeated exposure
**Muscle relaxants (limited evidence)
***Cyclobenzaprine 10 mg PO OR
***Methocarbamol 1500 mg PO
**[[Opioids]]
***Can be considered for moderate-severe pain but only for limited duration (<1 week)
***Associated with higher return rates to ED within 30 days for same complaint when compared to other modalities


Children
====Not Indicated====
| Subacute
*[[Steroids]]
| Yes with epidural abscess
**Of unlikely effectiveness<ref>Holve, RL, et al. Oral steroids in initial treatment of acute sciatica. J Am Board Fam Med. 2008; 21(5):469-474. </ref><ref>Goldberg H, et al. Oral steroids for acute radiculopathy due to a herniated lumbar disk: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015 May 19;313(19):1915-23. PMID 25988461.</ref>
|
*[[Benzodiazepines]]
+/- decr neuro
**No benefit over [[NSAIDs]] alone<ref>Friedman BW, et al. "Diazepam is no better than placebo when added to Naproxen for acute low back pain." Annals of EM. August 2017. 70(2):169-176</ref>


Localized pain
===Acute, Radicular Back Pain (Sciatica)===
''80% of patients will ultimately improve without surgery''
*Treatment is mostly the same as for acute non-radicular back pain
*Consider also [[gabapentin]] (titrate slowly) or [[TCAs]] ([[nortriptyline]], [[amytriptyline]])
**[[Gabapentin]] Oral: Immediate release: 400mg-1200mg PO TID


Fever in 50%
===[[Spinal stenosis]]===
|
*Treatment is the same as for musculoskeletal back pain
xray


ESR
===[[Cauda equina syndrome]]===
*Immediate spine surgery consultation for spinal decompression to avoid permanent bowel/bladder/neurologic injury
*Most common in young men<ref>Rider LS, Marra EM. Cauda Equina And Conus Medullaris Syndromes. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed March 29, 2023. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537200/</ref>
*The onset of perineal anesthesia associated with bladder dysfunction is typical of the start of cauda equina syndrome and the time at which the clock starts on diagnosis and management.<ref>Quaile A. Cauda equina syndrome-the questions. Int Orthop. 2019;43(4):957-961. doi:10.1007/s00264-018-4208-0</ref>
*Painless urinary retention often has the greatest predictive value as a stand-alone symptom, but it is unfortunately indicative of late, often irreversible cauda equina syndrome<ref>Todd NV. Guidelines for cauda equina syndrome. Red flags and white flags. Systematic review and implications for triage. Br J Neurosurg. 2017;31(3):336-339. doi:10.1080/02688697.2017.1297364</ref>


MRI/CT-M
==Disposition==
|
*Normally outpatient, as long as no signs of emergent pathology and able to ambulate
Abx
 
Neurosx consult
|-
| Musc/skel
| Adults
|
Acute-subacute
| Yes if herniated disc
|
+/- decr neuro
 
+ SLR
|
Nothing
 
xrays?
 
CT/MRI?
|
Pain meds
 
Modified activity
 
Referral
|-
| Cauda Equ
| Adults-elderly
| Acute-subacute
| colspan="2" |
Bilateral S/S
 
Urine/fecal changes
 
Decr rectal tone
 
Saddle anesthesia
| MRI/CT-M
| Neurosx
|}
 
====
 
====
 
==Work-Up==
 
0) Icon
 
1) X-rays* (if have red flag)
 
2) CBC/ESR/Chem 7/UA (if >50 yo)
 
3) Abd aorta US (if susp AAA >60 yo)
 
4) Pain treatment
 
<nowiki>*X-RAYS</nowiki>
 
Adults: AP & lateral of lumbar spine
 
Children: add oblique views (to evaluate for spondolithesis)
 
CT/MRI INDICATIONS
 
1) Suspect disc dis. w. severe motor impairment,
 
2) Suspect abcess or mets w/ neuro involv.
 
3) Cauda equina syndrome.
 
4) Elevated ESR
 
==Red Flags==
 
History
 
-Pain >4 weeks
 
-Age >50 or <18
 
-History of trauma
 
-Bilateral sciatica (or LBP w/ new sciatica)
 
-Neurologic complaints
 
-Bladder/bowel incontinence
 
-Night pain
 
-Unrelenting pain despite rest and analgesics
 
-Fevers/chills/nightsweats
 
-IVDA history
 
-Hx of cancer
 
-Prolonged steriod use
 
-Unexplained weight loss
 
Physical Exam
 
-Fever
 
-Point vertebral tenderness
 
-Neurologic deficits
 
-?Patient writhing in pain
 
==DDX==
 
AAA
 
Cauda equina sy
 
Epidural abcess/hematoma
 
Spinal fracture with cord/nerve impingement
 
Back pain with neurologic def
 
Intervetebral disk herniation
 
CA
 
Meningitis
 
Siatica
 
Spinal fracture
 
Spinal stenosis
 
Transverse myelitis
 
Vertebral osteo
 
Acute ligamentous injury
 
Acute muscle strain
 
Ankylosing spondylitis
 
Degeverative joint disease
 
Intervetebral disk disase
 
Pathologic fracture
 
Seropositive arthritis
 
Spondylolithesis
 
Cholecystitis
 
Esophageal dz
 
Pleural effusion
 
Pancreatic dis.
 
Perffed ulcer
 
Retrocecal appy
 
Large bowel obstr.
 
Renal dz
 
Pelvic dz
 
PID
 
Nephrolithiasis
 
PNA
 
PE
 
Pyelonephritis
 
Retroperitoneal hemorrhage/mass
 
==Cord Compression==
 
L4: pain frnt leg, weak knee ext., sens. loss knee/medial foot, lose knee jerk.
 
L5: pain side leg, wk dorsiflex, sens. loss lat lo leg & web big toe, reflex intact.
 
S1: pain back leg, weak plantarflex, sens. loss calf/lat foot, ankle jerk gone.
 
-Straight leg raise most sens., crossed most specific.
 
-Hypertrophic spur formation behind vert. is most likely non-disc cause of + SLR.
 
-Sciatica: impinged or irritated nerve. radicular distr., sharp, NO paresthesias/pain distal to knee/neuro impairment.
 
-Stenosis: back pain w/ walking, usually old person radiation to legs: Pseudo claudication. Usu. will curl after walking to get relief.
 
==Treatment (Pain)==
 
Mild to mod:
 
-NSAIDs
 
Mod to Severe
 
-non-narcotic(toradol/norflex), then 2-10 of MSO4 PRN
 
-OPIOD (vicodin or percocet) & nonsteroidal for 2-3 dy, then NSAID alone.
 
-#1 NSAIDs: ibuprofen, naprosyn; #2 Valium first choice for spasm as muscle relaxant. #3 Narcotics w/ oxycodone (percocet) 10-15 tabs. (don't use flexoril)
 
-Bedrest 2-3 days
 
-Referral


==See Also==
==See Also==
*[[Back Pain (Red Flags)]]


Back Pain (Red Flags)
==External Links==
 
*[http://ddxof.com/back-pain/ DDxOf: Differential Diagnosis of Back Pain]
==Source==
 
1/26/06 DONALDSON (adapted from Rosen, Lampe, Hock)
 
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Cause
| Patient
| Onset
| Radiation
| Exam
| Evaluation
| Treatment
|-
| Fracture
| Malignancy
osteoporosis
 
| Acute-subacute
| Rare
| Localized pain
| xray
| Pain meds
Refer/admit
 
|-
| Malignancy
|
Hx of cancer
 
Age > 50
 
Pain > 1 mo
 
Incr. severity
 
| Subacute
| Yes w/
epirdural mets
 
| +/- decr neuro
| xray
ESR
 
MRI/CT-M
 
| Steroids
Admit
 
|-
| Infection
| Immunocomp
IVDA
 
Children
 
| Subacute
| Yes w/
epidural abscess
 
| +/- decr neuro
Localized pain
 
Fever in 50%
 
| xray
ESR
 
MRI/CT-M
 
| Abx
NeuroSx consult
 
|-
| Musc/skel
| Adults
| Acute-subacute
| Yes if
herniated disc
 
| +/- decr neuro
+SLR
 
| Nothing
xrays?
 
CT/MRI?
 
| Pain meds
Modified activity
 
Referral
 
|-
| Cauda equina
| Adults-elderly
| Acute-subacute
| N/A
| Bilateral S/S
Urine/fecal changes
 
Decr rectal tone
 
Saddle anesthesia
 
| MRI/CT-M
| NeuroSx
|}
 
 
 
 
 
Osteoporosis
 
Acute-subacute Rare Localized pain xray Pain meds
 
Refer/admit
 
<br/>Malignancy Hx of cancer
 
Age > 50
 
Pain > 1 mo
 
Incr. severity
 
Subacute Yes with epidural mets +/- decr neuro xray
 
ESR
 
MRI/CT-M
 
Steroids
 
Admit
 
 
 
 
 
<br/>Infection Immunocomp
 
IVDA
 
Children
 
Subacute Yes with epidural abscess +/- decr neuro
 
Localized pain
 
Fever in 50%
 
xray
 
ESR
 
MRI/CT-M
 
Abx
 
Neurosx consult
 
 
 
<br/>Musc/skel Adults Acute-subacute
 
Yes if herniated disc +/- decr neuro
 
+ SLR
 
Nothing
 
xrays?
 
CT/MRI?
 
Pain meds
 
Modified activity
 
Referral
 
<br/>Cauda Equ Adults-elderly Acute-subacute Bilateral S/S
 
Urine/fecal changes
 
Decr rectal tone
 
Saddle anesthesia
 
MRI/CT-M Neurosx
 
==  ==
 
==  ==
 
== Work-Up ==
 
0) Icon
 
1) X-rays* (if have red flag)
 
2) CBC/ESR/Chem 7/UA (if >50 yo)
 
3) Abd aorta US (if susp AAA >60 yo)
 
4) Pain treatment
 
 
 
*X-RAYS
 
Adults: AP & lateral of lumbar spine
 
Children: add oblique views (to evaluate for spondolithesis)
 
 
 
CT/MRI INDICATIONS
 
1) Suspect disc dis. w. severe motor impairment,
 
2) Suspect abcess or mets w/ neuro involv.
 
3) Cauda equina syndrome.
 
4) Elevated ESR
 
 
 
== Red Flags ==
 
History
 
-Pain >4 weeks
 
-Age >50 or <18
 
-History of trauma
 
-Bilateral sciatica (or LBP w/ new sciatica)
 
-Neurologic complaints
 
-Bladder/bowel incontinence
 
-Night pain
 
-Unrelenting pain despite rest and analgesics
 
-Fevers/chills/nightsweats
 
-IVDA history
 
-Hx of cancer
 
-Prolonged steriod use
 
-Unexplained weight loss
 
Physical Exam
 
-Fever
 
-Point vertebral tenderness
 
-Neurologic deficits
 
-?Patient writhing in pain
 
 
 
== DDX ==
 
AAA
 
Cauda equina sy
 
Epidural abcess/hematoma
 
Spinal fracture with cord/nerve impingement
 
Back pain with neurologic def
 
Intervetebral disk herniation
 
CA
 
Meningitis
 
Siatica
 
Spinal fracture
 
Spinal stenosis
 
Transverse myelitis
 
Vertebral osteo
 
Acute ligamentous injury
 
Acute muscle strain
 
Ankylosing spondylitis
 
Degeverative joint disease
 
Intervetebral disk disase
 
Pathologic fracture
 
Seropositive arthritis
 
Spondylolithesis
 
Cholecystitis
 
Esophageal dz
 
Pleural effusion
 
Pancreatic dis.
 
Perffed ulcer
 
Retrocecal appy
 
Large bowel obstr.
 
Renal dz
 
Pelvic dz
 
PID
 
Nephrolithiasis
 
PNA
 
PE
 
Pyelonephritis
 
Retroperitoneal hemorrhage/mass
 
 
 
== Cord Compression ==
 
L4: pain frnt leg, weak knee ext., sens. loss knee/medial foot, lose knee jerk.
 
L5: pain side leg, wk dorsiflex, sens. loss lat lo leg & web big toe, reflex intact.
 
S1: pain back leg, weak plantarflex, sens. loss calf/lat foot, ankle jerk gone.
 
-Straight leg raise most sens., crossed most specific.
 
-Hypertrophic spur formation behind vert. is most likely non-disc cause of + SLR.
 
-Sciatica: impinged or irritated nerve. radicular distr., sharp, NO paresthesias/pain distal to knee/neuro impairment.
 
-Stenosis: back pain w/ walking, usually old person radiation to legs: Pseudo claudication. Usu. will curl after walking to get relief.
 
 
 
== Treatment (Pain) ==
 
Mild to mod:
 
-NSAIDs
 
Mod to Severe
 
-non-narcotic(toradol/norflex), then 2-10 of MSO4 PRN
 
-OPIOD (vicodin or percocet) & nonsteroidal for 2-3 dy, then NSAID alone.
 
-#1 NSAIDs: ibuprofen, naprosyn; #2 Valium first choice for spasm as muscle relaxant. #3 Narcotics w/ oxycodone (percocet) 10-15 tabs. (don't use flexoril)
 
-Bedrest 2-3 days
 
-Referral
 
 
 
== See Also ==
 
Back Pain (Red Flags)
 
 
 
== Source ==


1/26/06 DONALDSON (adapted from Rosen, Lampe, Hock)
==References==
<references/>


<br/>[[Category:Ortho]]
[[Category:Orthopedics]]

Latest revision as of 20:11, 17 April 2024

Background

  • May also be called lumbago, referring to pain in the muscles and joints of the lower back
  • Pain lasting > 6 weeks is risk factor for more serious disease
  • Night pain and unrelenting pain are worrisome symptoms
  • Back pain in IV drug user is spinal infection until proven otherwise
  • 95% of herniated discs occur at L4-L5 or L5-S1 (for both pain extends below the knee)

Back Pain Risk factors and probability of Fracture or Malignancy[1]

Factor Post Test Probability (95%CI)
Older Age (>65yo) 9% (3-25%)
Prolonged corticosteroid 33% (10-67%)
Severe trauma 11% (8-16%)
Presence of contusion or abrasion 62% (49-74%)
Multiple red flags 90% (34-99%)
History of malignancy 33% (22-46%)

Red Flag Symptoms of Low Back Pain [2]

Symptoms Corresponding Pathology
Age under 18 years Congenital abnormality
Age over 50 years Fracture, malignancy
Anticoagulant use Spinal hematoma
Fever Infection, malignancy
Genitourinary issues including urinary retention/incontinence or sexual dysfunction Cauda equina syndrome
Immunocompromised Fracture, infection
IV drug use Infection
Recent spinal surgery or epidural injection Infection, spinal hematoma
Trauma Fracture, spinal hematoma

Red Flag Signs of Low Back Pain[3]

Signs Corresponding Pathology
Reduced anal sphincter tone Cauda equina syndrome
Hyperreflexia Acute cord compression
Hyporeflexia/areflexia Cauda equina syndrome
Lower extremity muscle weakness Acute cord compression or Cauda equina syndrome
Saddle paresthesia/anesthesia Cauda equina syndrome
Absent or decreased bulbocavernosus reflex Cauda equina syndrome

Clinical Features

Symptoms by Causes of Low back pain

Musculoskeletal pain Spinal stenosis Sciatica Cauda equina syndrome Rheumatologic
Radiation? No Possible (can be bilateral) Yes (in the distribution of a lumbar or sacral nerve root) Possible ?
Worsened by: Movement (e.g. twisting of torso) Walking (pseudo-claudication) and prolonged standing Coughing, Valsalva, sitting Morning stiffness >30minutes
Improved by: Rest Forward flexion, especially sitting Lying in supine position Movement throughout the day
Other symptoms: Urinary/bowel disturbances, perineal anaesthesia Other rheum symptoms (e.g. ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthropathy, IBD arthropathy, Reiter's disease)
Lumbar nerve root distribution

Waddell's Signs of Non-Organic Low back pain[4]

3 or more positives suggest non-organic or alternative organic source:

  • Over-reaction to the examination
  • Widespread superficial tenderness not corresponding to any anatomical distribution
  • Pain on axial loading of the skull or pain on rotation of the shoulders and pelvis together
  • Severely limited straight leg raising on formal testing in a patient who can sit forwards with the legs extended
  • Lower limb weakness or sensory loss not corresponding to a nerve root distribution

Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis of back pain

Lower Back Pain

Evaluation

Exam

  • Straight leg raise testing
    • Screening exam for a herniated disk (Sn 68-80%)
    • Lifting leg causes radicular pain of affected leg radiating to BELOW the knee
    • Pain is worsened by ankle dorsiflexion
    • Pain may be relieved by pressing across biceps femoris and pes anserinus tendons behind knee ('bowstringing')
  • Crossed Straight leg raise testing (high Sp, low Sn)
    • Lifting the asymptomatic leg causes radicular pain down the affected leg
  • Nerve root compromise
  • Rectal exam, perineal sensation, palpable bladder?

Labs

  • Pregnancy test
  • Only necessary if concerned for infection, tumor, or rheumatologic cause
    • CBC, UA, ESR (90-98% Sn for infectious etiology)
  • Consider post void residual

Imaging

  • Multiple institutions advise against routine initial imaging of the lumbar spine in adults with acute non-traumatic low back pain, in the absence of severe progressive neurologic deficit, absence of red flags, and if <6 weeks in duration.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
  • Plain films
    • May consider if suspect fracture, tumor, or infection, however, of low utility.
  • CT
    • Better for identification of fractures.
  • MRI
  • Ultrasound

Management

Acute, Non-traumatic, Non-Radicular Back Pain

  • Instruct to continue daily activities using pain as limiting factor
  • Recommend at home stretches
  • Medications
    • Acetaminophen and/or NSAIDs
      • 1st line therapy
      • Consider gel/patch like diclofenac or ketoprofen (shown to be more effective than PO form and placebo in one study[13])
    • Lidocaine patch
    • Capsaicin or Cayenne
      • Skin desensitization upon repeated exposure
    • Muscle relaxants (limited evidence)
      • Cyclobenzaprine 10 mg PO OR
      • Methocarbamol 1500 mg PO
    • Opioids
      • Can be considered for moderate-severe pain but only for limited duration (<1 week)
      • Associated with higher return rates to ED within 30 days for same complaint when compared to other modalities

Not Indicated

Acute, Radicular Back Pain (Sciatica)

80% of patients will ultimately improve without surgery

Spinal stenosis

  • Treatment is the same as for musculoskeletal back pain

Cauda equina syndrome

  • Immediate spine surgery consultation for spinal decompression to avoid permanent bowel/bladder/neurologic injury
  • Most common in young men[17]
  • The onset of perineal anesthesia associated with bladder dysfunction is typical of the start of cauda equina syndrome and the time at which the clock starts on diagnosis and management.[18]
  • Painless urinary retention often has the greatest predictive value as a stand-alone symptom, but it is unfortunately indicative of late, often irreversible cauda equina syndrome[19]

Disposition

  • Normally outpatient, as long as no signs of emergent pathology and able to ambulate

See Also

External Links

References

  1. ↑ Downie A, et al. Red flags to screen for malignancy and fracture in patients with low back pain: systematic review. BMJ. 2013; 347:f7095. [1]
  2. ↑ Depalma. Red flags of low back pain. JAAPA. 2020;33(8):8. doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000684112.91641.4c
  3. ↑ Depalma. Red flags of low back pain. JAAPA. 2020;33(8):8. doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000684112.91641.4c
  4. ↑ Waddell G, et al. Non-organic physical signs in low-back pain. Spine. 1980; 5:117-125.
  5. ↑ ACEP - Lumbar spine imaging in the ED | Choosing Wisely. October 27, 2014. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/clinician-lists/acep-lumbar-spine-imaging-in-the-ed/
  6. ↑ American College of Physicians. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. February 24, 2015. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-college-of-physicians/
  7. ↑ American Academy of Family Physicians. Twenty Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. 2021. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-academy-of-family-physicians/
  8. ↑ American Society of Anesthesiologists. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2019. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-society-of-anesthesiologists-pain-medicine/
  9. ↑ American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2022. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-college-of-occupational-and-environmental-medicine/
  10. ↑ American Association of Neurological Surgeons and Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published June 24, 2014. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-association-of-neurological-surgeons-and-congress-of-neurological-surgeons/
  11. ↑ American Chiropractic Association. Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2021. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/american-chiropractic-association/
  12. ↑ Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question. Choosing Wisely Campaign. Published 2022. Accessed March 10, 2023. https://www.choosingwisely.org/societies/north-american-spine-society/
  13. ↑ Mazières B, Rouanet S, Velicy J, et al. Topical ketoprofen patch (100 mg) for the treatment of ankle sprain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33:515-523
  14. ↑ Holve, RL, et al. Oral steroids in initial treatment of acute sciatica. J Am Board Fam Med. 2008; 21(5):469-474.
  15. ↑ Goldberg H, et al. Oral steroids for acute radiculopathy due to a herniated lumbar disk: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015 May 19;313(19):1915-23. PMID 25988461.
  16. ↑ Friedman BW, et al. "Diazepam is no better than placebo when added to Naproxen for acute low back pain." Annals of EM. August 2017. 70(2):169-176
  17. ↑ Rider LS, Marra EM. Cauda Equina And Conus Medullaris Syndromes. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed March 29, 2023. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537200/
  18. ↑ Quaile A. Cauda equina syndrome-the questions. Int Orthop. 2019;43(4):957-961. doi:10.1007/s00264-018-4208-0
  19. ↑ Todd NV. Guidelines for cauda equina syndrome. Red flags and white flags. Systematic review and implications for triage. Br J Neurosurg. 2017;31(3):336-339. doi:10.1080/02688697.2017.1297364
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