Agitated or combative patient

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Background

  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Positive predictors of violence
    • Male gender
    • History of violence
    • Substance abuse
    • Psychiatric illness
    • Increased waiting duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
  • Factors that do not predict violence
    • Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
    • Evaluation by psychiatrist, regardless of experience

Clinical Features

  • Escalation behaviors may include progression through:
    • Anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence

Differential Diagnosis

FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)

Evaluation

  • Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.
    • Always obtain:
      • Blood glucose
      • Vitals, including pulse oximetry
    • Consider:
      • Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
      • Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
      • Ammonia level
      • Urine analysis
      • Lumbar puncture (CNS infection)
      • Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
      • Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
      • Electrocardiogram (elders, intentional ingestion).
      • Cranial imaging
      • Electroencephalography
  • Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.
    • Organic cause unlikelymay not require further workup
      • Younger than 40 years
      • Prior psychiatric history
      • Normal physical examination
        • Normal vital signs
        • Calm demeanor
        • Normal orientation
        • No physical complaints
    • Organic cause more likelydoes require further workup
      • Acute onset of agitated behavior
      • Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
      • Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
      • Elders (higher risk for delirium)
      • History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
      • Persistently abnormal vital signs
      • Clouding of consciousness
      • Focal neurologic findings

Management

Risk assessment

  • Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Be aware of surroundings
    • Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
    • Accessibility of door for escape
    • Presence of objects that may be used as weapons

Verbal de-escalation techniques

  • Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
    • Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
    • Possession of weapons
    • History of violent behavior
    • Current use of intoxicants
  • Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
    • Respond in a calm and soothing tone
    • Express concern/worry about the patient
  • Three Fs framework:
    • I understand how you could feel that way.
    • Others in that situation have felt that way, too.
    • Most have found that _____ helps."
  • Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension
  • Do not threaten to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
  • Do not deceive (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
  • Do not command to calm down — Invites further escalation
  • Do not downplay, deny, or ignore threatening behavior
  • Do not hesitate — Leave and call for help if necessary

Chemical Restraints (Rapid Tranquilization)

  • Offer voluntary administration to patient — increased sense of control may calm patient
  • If need to temporary physical restraint the patient: One arm up, one arm down, tie legs to opposite side of bed. Reference with video
  • Suggested protocol for continued agitation: antipsychotic Q5 min x 2, then ketamine IM
  • Ketamine, at a dose of 3-5 mg/kg IM, achieves sedation in 2-10 minutes. Few medications, if any, reliably achieve effective sedation this quickly following a single dose. [1].
  • Other protocols involve combination therapy[2].
  • Neuroleptics (Antipsychotics)
  • Ketamine[3]
    • 4-6mg/kg IM or 1mg/kg IV
  • Benzodiazepines
    • "There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.[4]
    • Lorazepam — Eliminated without active metabolites
      • Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
      • Duration: 6-8 H
    • Midazolam
      • Onset: 15 min (IM)
      • Duration: 2 H
  • Typical intramuscular dosing for adult patients:[5]
    • Haloperidol 5-10mg IM, ziprasidone 20mg IM, olanzapine 10mg IM, and midazolam 5mg IM.
      • In order from slowest to quickest time to effect

Physical restraints

  • Not for convenience or punishment
  • Indications for seclusion or restraint
    • Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
    • Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
  • Contraindications to seclusion
    • Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
    • Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
  • Caveats
    • Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
    • Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position

Disposition

Admit

  • Admit or commit when...
    • Harm to self
    • Harm to others
    • Cannot care for self
    • Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
    • Intoxicated
    • Psychotic
    • Organic brain syndrome

Discharge

  • Consider discharge when...
    • Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
    • No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
    • Patient is in control and no longer violent

See Also

External Links

Further Reading

References

  1. Westafer, Lauren. “Patients with Severe Agitation in the ED.” ACEP NOW, vol. 42, no. 12, https://www.acepnow.com/article/which-sedatives-are-best-for-managing-severe-agitation-in-the-emergency-department/.
  2. The Art of the ED Takedown EMDocs
  3. Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  4. Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  5. Klein LR, Driver BE, Miner JR, et al. Intramuscular Midazolam, Olanzapine, Ziprasidone, or Haloperidol for Treating Acute Agitation in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72(4):374-385.