Agitated or combative patient: Difference between revisions
 
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== Background ==
==Background==
*'''Violence may occur without warning'''
*Positive predictors of violence
**Male gender
**History of violence
**Substance abuse
**Psychiatric illness
***[[Schizophrenia]], Psychotic [[depression]]
***[[Personality disorders]] - (e.g. antisocial personality disorder patients may lack remorse for violent actions_
***[[bipolar disorder|Mania]] - unpredictable because of emotional lability
**Increased '''waiting''' duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
*Factors that '''do not''' predict violence
**Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
**Evaluation by psychiatrist, '''regardless of experience'''


* '''Violence may occur without warning'''
==Clinical Features==
* Positive predictors of violence
*Escalation behaviors may include progression through:
** Male gender
**Anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
** History of violence
** Substance abuse
** Psychiatric illness
*** Schizophrenia, Psychotic depression
*** Personality disorders - lack remorse for violent actions
*** Mania - unpredictable because of emotional lability
** Increased '''waiting''' duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
* Factors that '''do not''' predict violence
** Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
** Evaluation by psychiatrist, '''regardless of experience'''


== Clinical Features ==
==Differential Diagnosis==
''FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)''
*Psychiatric
**[[Schizophrenia]], paranoid ideation, catatonic excitement
**[[Bipolar disorder|Mania]]
**Personality disorders ([[borderline personality disorder|borderline]], [[antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]])
**Delusional [[depression]]
**Post-traumatic stress disorder
**Decompensating obsessive-compulsive disorders
*Situational Frustration
**Mutual hostility
**Miscommunication
**Fear of dependence or rejection
**Fear of illness
**Guilt about disease process
*Antisocial Behavior
**Violence with no associated medical or psychiatric explanation
*Organic Diseases
**[[Head trauma]]
**[[Hypoxia]]
**[[Hypoglycemia]] or [[hyperglycemia]]
**[[Electrolyte abnormality]]
**Infection
***CNS infection (eg, herpes [[encephalitis]])
***[[AIDS]]
**Endocrine disorder
***[[Thyrotoxicosis]]
***[[Hyperparathyroidism]]
**[[Seizure]] (eg, temporal lobe, limbic)
**[[CNS tumor]] (limbic system)
**Autoimmune Disease
***[[Limbic encephalitis]]
***[[Multiple sclerosis]]
**[[Porphyria]]
**[[Wilson's disease]]
**Huntington’s disease
**Sleep disorders
**[[Vitamin deficiencies]] (e.g. folate, B12, niacin, B6)
**[[Delirium]]
**[[Dementia]]
**[[Cerebrovascular accident]]
**Vascular malformation (e.g. [[AVM]])
**[[Hypothermia]] or [[hyperthermia]]
**[[Anemia]]
*Tox
**Adverse reaction to prescribed medication
**[[Alcohol]] (intoxication and withdrawal)
**[[Amphetamines]]
**[[Cocaine]]
**[[Sedative/Hypnotics]] (intoxication or withdrawal)
**[[Phencyclidine]] (PCP)
**[[Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)]]
**[[Anticholinergics]]
**Aromatic [[hydrocarbons]] (eg, glue, paint, gasoline)
**[[Steroids]]


* Escalation behaviors include progression through:
==Evaluation==
** anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
*'''Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.'''
**Always obtain:
***Blood glucose
***Vitals, including pulse oximetry
**Consider:
***Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
***Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
***Ammonia level
***Urine analysis
***[[Lumbar puncture]] (CNS infection)
***Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
***Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
***[[Electrocardiogram]] (elders, intentional ingestion).
***Cranial imaging
***Electroencephalography
*'''Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.'''
**'''Organic cause unlikely''' → ''may not'' require further workup
***Younger than 40 years
***Prior psychiatric history
***Normal physical examination
****Normal vital signs
****Calm demeanor
****Normal orientation
****No physical complaints
**'''Organic cause more likely''' → ''does'' require further workup
***Acute onset of agitated behavior
***Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
***Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
***Elders (higher risk for delirium)
***History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
***Persistently abnormal vital signs
***Clouding of consciousness
***Focal neurologic findings


== Differential Diagnosis ==
==Management==


* FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)
===Risk assessment===
* Psychiatric
*Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
** Schizophrenia
*'''Violence may occur without warning'''
** Paranoid ideation
*'''Be aware of surroundings'''
** Catatonic excitement
**Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
** Mania
**Accessibility of door for escape
** Personality disorders (Borderline, Antisocial)
**Presence of objects that may be used as weapons
** Delusional depression
** Post-traumatic stress disorder
** Decompensating obsessive-compulsive disorders
** Homosexual panic
* Situational Frustration
** Mutual hostility
** Miscommunication
** Fear of dependence or rejection
** Fear of illness
** Guilt about disease process
* Antisocial Behavior
** Violence with no associated medical or psychiatric explanation
* Organic Diseases
** Trauma (head)
** Hypoxia
** Hypoglycemia or Hyperglycemia
** Electrolyte abnormality
** Infection
*** CNS infection (eg, herpes encephalitis)
*** AIDS
** Endocrine disorder
*** Thyrotoxicosis
*** Hyperparathyroidism
** Seizure (eg, temporal lobe, limbic)
** Neoplasm (limbic system)
** Autoimmune Disease
*** Limbic encephalitis
*** Multiple sclerosis
** Porphyria
** Wilson’s disease
** Huntington’s disease
** Sleep disorders
** Vitamin deficiency
*** Folate
*** Vitamin B12
*** Niacin
*** Vitamin B6
*** [[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]]
** Delirium
** Dementia
** Cerebrovascular accident
** Vascular malformation
** [[Hypothermia]] or hyperthermia
** Anemia
* Drugs
** Adverse reaction to prescribed medication
** Alcohol (intoxication and withdrawal)
** Amphetamines
** Cocaine
** Sedative-hypnotics (intoxication or withdrawal)
** Phencyclidine (PCP)
** Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
** Anticholinergics
** Aromatic hydrocarbons (eg, glue, paint, gasoline)
** Steroids


== Evaluation ==
===Verbal de-escalation techniques===
*Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
**Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
**Possession of weapons
**History of violent behavior
**Current use of intoxicants
*Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
**Respond in a calm and soothing tone
**Express concern/worry about the patient
*'''Three Fs framework''':
**I understand how you could '''feel''' that way.
**Others in that situation have '''felt''' that way, too.
**Most have '''found''' that _____ helps."
*'''Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension'''
*'''Do not ''threaten'' ''' to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
*'''Do not ''deceive'' ''' (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
*'''Do not ''command'' ''' to calm down — Invites further escalation
*'''Do not ''downplay'', ''deny'', or ''ignore'' '''threatening behavior
*'''Do not ''hesitate'' ''' — Leave and call for help if necessary


* '''Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.'''
===Chemical Restraints (Rapid Tranquilization)===
** Always obtain:
*Offer voluntary administration to patient — increased sense of control may calm patient
*** Blood glucose
*If need to temporary physical restraint the patient: One arm up, one arm down, tie legs to opposite side of bed. [https://emcrit.org/emcrit/human-bondage-chemical-takedown/ Reference with video]
*** Vitals, including pulse oximetry
*Suggested protocol for continued agitation: antipsychotic Q5 min x 2, then ketamine IM
** Consider:
**E.g. [[Droperidol]] 10mg (or [[haloperidol]] 5mg) IM Q5 min x 2, then [[ketamine]] 300mg IM
*** Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
*[[Ketamine]], at a dose of 3-5 mg/kg IM, achieves sedation in 2-10 minutes. Few medications, if any, reliably achieve effective sedation this quickly following a single dose. <ref> Westafer, Lauren. “Patients with Severe Agitation in the ED.” ACEP NOW, vol. 42, no. 12, https://www.acepnow.com/article/which-sedatives-are-best-for-managing-severe-agitation-in-the-emergency-department/.</ref>.
*** Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
*Other protocols involve combination therapy<ref>[http://www.emdocs.net/the-art-of-the-ed-takedown/ The Art of the ED Takedown EMDocs]</ref>.
*** Lumbar puncture (CNS infection)
*Neuroleptics ([[Antipsychotics]])
*** Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
**Atypical antipsychotics
*** Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
***Less sedation and [[EPS]] (than typical)
*** Electrocardiogram (elders, intentional ingestion).
***Increased mortality in elderly with dementia-related psychosis
*** Cranial imaging
***[[olanzapine]], [[ziprasidone]], and [[aripiprazole]]
*** Electroencephalography
**Typical antipsychotics (low potency)
* '''Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.'''
***Greater sedation, hypotension, anticholinergic effects (than high-potency)
** '''Organic cause unlikely''' &rarr; ''may not'' require further workup
***[[chlorpromazine]] and [[thioridazine]]
*** Younger than 40 years
**Typical antipsychotics (medium potency)
*** Prior psychiatric history
***[[loxapine]] and [[molindone]]
*** Normal physical examination
**Typical antipsychotics (high potency)
**** Normal vital signs
***Greater [[EPS]] (than low-potency)
**** Calm demeanor
***[[butyrophenones]]: [[haloperidol]] and [[droperidol]]
**** Normal orientation
**Cautions
**** No physical complaints
***[[Neuroleptic malignant syndrome]] &mdash; rare
** '''Organic cause more likely''' &rarr; ''does'' require further workup
***[[Extrapyramidal symptoms]] &mdash; treat with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]]
*** Acute onset of agitated behavior
***[[QTc prolongation]] and [[torsades de pointes]]
*** Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
*[[Ketamine]]<ref>Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587</ref>
*** Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
**4-6mg/kg IM or 1mg/kg IV
*** Elders (higher risk for delirium)
*[[Benzodiazepines]]
*** History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
**''"There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.''<ref>Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587</ref>
*** Persistently abnormal vital signs
**[[Lorazepam]] &mdash; Eliminated without active metabolites
*** Clouding of consciousness
***Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
*** Focal neurologic findings
***Duration: 6-8 H
**[[Midazolam]]
***Onset: 15 min (IM)
***Duration: 2 H
*Typical intramuscular dosing for adult patients:<ref>Klein LR, Driver BE, Miner JR, et al. Intramuscular Midazolam, Olanzapine, Ziprasidone, or Haloperidol for Treating Acute Agitation in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72(4):374-385.</ref>
**Haloperidol 5-10mg IM, ziprasidone 20mg IM, olanzapine 10mg IM, and midazolam 5mg IM.
***In order from slowest to quickest time to effect


== Management ==
===Physical restraints===
 
*'''Not for convenience or punishment'''
=== Risk assessment ===
*Indications for seclusion or restraint
* Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
**Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
* '''Violence may occur without warning'''
**Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
* '''Be aware of surroundings'''
*Contraindications to seclusion
** Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
**Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
** Accessibility of door for escape
**Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
** Presence of objects that may be used as weapons
*Caveats
 
**Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
=== Verbal management techniques ===
**Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position
* Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
** Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
** Possession of weapons
** History of violent behavior
** Current use of intoxicants
* Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
** Respond in a calm and soothing tone
* '''Three Fs framework''':
** I understand how you could '''feel''' that way.
** Others in that situation have '''felt''' that way, too.
** Most have '''found''' that _____ helps."
* '''Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension'''
* '''Do not ''threaten'' ''' to call security &mdash; Invites patient to challenge with violence
* '''Do not ''deceive'' ''' (eg, about estimated wait times) &mdash; Invites violence when lie is uncovered
* '''Do not ''command'' ''' to calm down &mdash; Invites further escalation
* '''Do not ''downplay'', ''deny'', or ''ignore'' '''threatening behavior
* '''Do not ''hesitate'' ''' &mdash; Leave and call for help if necessary
 
=== Chemical restraints ===
* AKA: Rapid tranquilization
* Offer voluntary administration to patient &mdash; increased sense of control may calm patient
* Benzodiazipines
**''"There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.''<ref>Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587</ref>
** [[lorazepam]] &mdash; Eliminated without active metabolites
*** Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
*** Duration: 6-8 H
** [[midazolam]]
*** Onset: 15 min (IM)
*** Duration: 2 H
* Neuroleptics (Antipsychotics)
** Atypical antipsychotics
*** Less sedation and [[EPS]] (than typical)
*** Increased mortality in elderly with dementia-related psychosis
*** [[olanzapine]], [[ziprasidone]], and [[aripiprazole]]
** Typical antipsychotics (low potency)
*** Greater sedation, hypotension, anticholinergic effects (than high-potency)
*** [[chlorpromazine]] and [[thioridazine]]
** Typical antipsychotics (medium potency)
*** [[loxapine]] and [[molindone]]
** Typical antipsychotics (high potency)
*** Greater [[EPS]] (than low-potency)
*** [[butyrophenones]]: [[haloperidol]] and [[droperidol]]
** Cautions
*** [[Neuroleptic malignant syndrome]] &mdash; rare
*** [[Extrapyramidal symptoms]] &mdash; treat with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]]
*** [[QTc prolongation]] and [[torsades de pointes]]


=== Physical restraints ===
==Disposition==
* '''Not for convenience or punishment'''
===Admit===
* Indications for seclusion or restraint
*Admit or commit when...
** Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
**Harm to self
** Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
**Harm to others
* Contraindications to seclusion
**Cannot care for self
** Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
**Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
** Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
**Intoxicated
* Caveats
**Psychotic
** Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
**Organic brain syndrome
** Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position


== Disposition ==
===Discharge===
*Consider discharge when...
**Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
**No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
**Patient is in control and no longer violent


* Admit or commit when...
==See Also==
** Harm to self
*[[Sedation (main)]]
** Harm to others
*[[Altered mental status]]
** Cannot care for self
*[[Excited delirium]]
** Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
*[[Acute psychosis]]
** Intoxicated
** Psychotic
** Organic brain syndrome
* Consider discharge when...
** Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
** No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
** Patient is in control and no longer violent


== See Also ==
==External Links==
* [[Altered mental status]]
* [[Excited delirium]]


== External Links ==


== Further Reading ==
==Further Reading==
* Heiner JD and Moore GP.  The Combative Patient.  In: Marx J, Walls R, Hockberger R, eds.  Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice.  8th ed.  Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 2014: 188: 2414-2421.
*Heiner JD and Moore GP.  The Combative Patient.  In: Marx J, Walls R, Hockberger R, eds.  Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice.  8th ed.  Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 2014: 188: 2414-2421.
* Moore GP, Pfaff JA.  [https://www.uptodate.com/contents/assessment-and-emergency-management-of-the-acutely-agitated-or-violent-adult Assessment and emergency management of the acutely agitated or violent adult].  UpToDate.  Feb 16, 2017.
*Moore GP, Pfaff JA.  [https://www.uptodate.com/contents/assessment-and-emergency-management-of-the-acutely-agitated-or-violent-adult Assessment and emergency management of the acutely agitated or violent adult].  UpToDate.  Feb 16, 2017.


== References ==
==References==
<References/>
<References/>


[[Category:Psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry]]

Latest revision as of 19:49, 11 January 2024

Background

  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Positive predictors of violence
    • Male gender
    • History of violence
    • Substance abuse
    • Psychiatric illness
    • Increased waiting duration (for evaluation, results, treatment, etc)
  • Factors that do not predict violence
    • Ethnicity, diagnosis, age, marital status, and education
    • Evaluation by psychiatrist, regardless of experience

Clinical Features

  • Escalation behaviors may include progression through:
    • Anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence

Differential Diagnosis

FIND ME (functional, infectious, neurologic, drugs, metabolic, endocrine)

Evaluation

  • Screen for acute medical conditions that may contribute to the patient's behavior.
    • Always obtain:
      • Blood glucose
      • Vitals, including pulse oximetry
    • Consider:
      • Metabolic panel: serum electrolytes, thyroid function
      • Toxicology screen and blood alcohol levels
      • Ammonia level
      • Urine analysis
      • Lumbar puncture (CNS infection)
      • Aspirin and acetaminophen levels (intentional ingestion)
      • Medication levels (sub- vs super-therapeutic)
      • Electrocardiogram (elders, intentional ingestion).
      • Cranial imaging
      • Electroencephalography
  • Unnecessary diagnostic testing prolongs ED stay and delays definitive psychiatric care.
    • Organic cause unlikely → may not require further workup
      • Younger than 40 years
      • Prior psychiatric history
      • Normal physical examination
        • Normal vital signs
        • Calm demeanor
        • Normal orientation
        • No physical complaints
    • Organic cause more likely → does require further workup
      • Acute onset of agitated behavior
      • Behavior that waxes and wanes over time
      • Older than 40 years with new psychiatric symptoms
      • Elders (higher risk for delirium)
      • History of substance abuse (intoxication or withdrawal)
      • Persistently abnormal vital signs
      • Clouding of consciousness
      • Focal neurologic findings

Management

Risk assessment

  • Screen for weapons and disarm prior to entrance to ED
  • Violence may occur without warning
  • Be aware of surroundings
    • Signs of anger, resistance, aggression, hostility, argumentativeness, violence
    • Accessibility of door for escape
    • Presence of objects that may be used as weapons

Verbal de-escalation techniques

  • Be honest and straightforward; Ask about violence directly
    • Suicidal or homicidal ideations and plans
    • Possession of weapons
    • History of violent behavior
    • Current use of intoxicants
  • Be nonconfrontational, attentive, and receptive
    • Respond in a calm and soothing tone
    • Express concern/worry about the patient
  • Three Fs framework:
    • I understand how you could feel that way.
    • Others in that situation have felt that way, too.
    • Most have found that _____ helps."
  • Avoid argumentation, machismo, and condescension
  • Do not threaten to call security — Invites patient to challenge with violence
  • Do not deceive (eg, about estimated wait times) — Invites violence when lie is uncovered
  • Do not command to calm down — Invites further escalation
  • Do not downplay, deny, or ignore threatening behavior
  • Do not hesitate — Leave and call for help if necessary

Chemical Restraints (Rapid Tranquilization)

  • Offer voluntary administration to patient — increased sense of control may calm patient
  • If need to temporary physical restraint the patient: One arm up, one arm down, tie legs to opposite side of bed. Reference with video
  • Suggested protocol for continued agitation: antipsychotic Q5 min x 2, then ketamine IM
  • Ketamine, at a dose of 3-5 mg/kg IM, achieves sedation in 2-10 minutes. Few medications, if any, reliably achieve effective sedation this quickly following a single dose. [1].
  • Other protocols involve combination therapy[2].
  • Neuroleptics (Antipsychotics)
  • Ketamine[3]
    • 4-6mg/kg IM or 1mg/kg IV
  • Benzodiazepines
    • "There is increasing evidence that benzodiazepines alone and in combination with antipsychotics are associated with higher rates of adverse effects.[4]
    • Lorazepam — Eliminated without active metabolites
      • Onset: 5-20 min (IV), 15-30 min (IM)
      • Duration: 6-8 H
    • Midazolam
      • Onset: 15 min (IM)
      • Duration: 2 H
  • Typical intramuscular dosing for adult patients:[5]
    • Haloperidol 5-10mg IM, ziprasidone 20mg IM, olanzapine 10mg IM, and midazolam 5mg IM.
      • In order from slowest to quickest time to effect

Physical restraints

  • Not for convenience or punishment
  • Indications for seclusion or restraint
    • Imminent danger to self, others, or environment
    • Part of ongoing behavioral treatment
  • Contraindications to seclusion
    • Patient is unstable and requires close monitoring
    • Patient is self-harming (suicidal, self-mutilating, toxin ingestion)
  • Caveats
    • Allow for adequate chest expansion for ventilation
    • Sudden death has occurred in the prone or hobble position

Disposition

Admit

  • Admit or commit when...
    • Harm to self
    • Harm to others
    • Cannot care for self
    • Uncooperative, refusing to answer questions
    • Intoxicated
    • Psychotic
    • Organic brain syndrome

Discharge

  • Consider discharge when...
    • Temporary organic syndrome has concluded (eg, intoxication)
    • No other significant problem requiring acute intervention
    • Patient is in control and no longer violent

See Also

External Links

Further Reading

References

  1. ↑ Westafer, Lauren. “Patients with Severe Agitation in the ED.” ACEP NOW, vol. 42, no. 12, https://www.acepnow.com/article/which-sedatives-are-best-for-managing-severe-agitation-in-the-emergency-department/.
  2. ↑ The Art of the ED Takedown EMDocs
  3. ↑ Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  4. ↑ Ketamine as Rescue Treatment for Difficulty-to-Sedate Severe Acute Behavioral Disturbance in the ED. Annals of EM. May 2016 67(5):581-587
  5. ↑ Klein LR, Driver BE, Miner JR, et al. Intramuscular Midazolam, Olanzapine, Ziprasidone, or Haloperidol for Treating Acute Agitation in the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2018;72(4):374-385.
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