Compartment syndrome: Difference between revisions
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== | ==Background== | ||
* | *Most commonly caused by tibia fracture (anterior compartment) | ||
{{Compartment Syndrome Indications}} | |||
== | ===Pathophysiology=== | ||
* | *Tissue perfusion is difference between diastolic BP and compartment pressure | ||
**As compartment pressure increases, tissue perfusion decreases | |||
** | |||
== | ===Etiologies=== | ||
* | *Orthopedic | ||
* | **[[Tibial fracture]] | ||
** | **[[Forearm fracture]] | ||
** | *Vascular | ||
** | **Ischemic-reperfusion injury | ||
** | **Hemorrhage | ||
** | ***Can be spontaneous in anticoagulated patients | ||
*** | *Iatrogenic | ||
**** | **Vascular puncture in anticoagulated patients | ||
** | **IV/intra-arterial drug injection | ||
** | **Constrictive casts | ||
*Soft tissue injury | |||
**Prolonged limb compression | |||
**[[Crush injury]] | |||
**[[Burn]] | |||
**[[Snake bite]] | |||
**Expanding hematoma | |||
== | ==Clinical Features== | ||
=== | ===General Symptoms=== | ||
* | *Compartment is swollen, firm, tender with squeezing | ||
* | *Usually develops soon after significant trauma | ||
**May be delayed up to 48hr after the event | |||
====5 P's==== | |||
*Classic signs of disruption in arterial flow, not of compartment syndrome | |||
**Only found once arterial flow has stopped (very late finding) | |||
* | #Pain (early finding) | ||
* | #*Severe, out of proportion to physical findings | ||
* | #*Worse with passive stretch of distal body part such as toes or fingers (muscle extension > increased volume > increased pressure) | ||
#*Often the presenting symptom. | |||
#Paresthesia (early finding) | |||
#*Occurs in sensory distribution of affected nerve | |||
#Pallor | |||
#Paralysis: late finding | |||
#Pulselessness: late finding | |||
** | ===Lower Leg Specific Syndromes=== | ||
*Superficial | *Anterior | ||
* | **Nerve: deep fibular (peroneal): sensation of 1st webspace | ||
** | **Muscle: tibialis anterior: foot/ankle dorsiflexion | ||
*Lateral | |||
**Nerve: superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve: sensation of lateral aspect of lower leg, dorsum of foot | |||
**Muscle: peroneus longus and brevis: foot plantarflexion | |||
*Deep posterior | |||
**Nerve: posterior tibial nerve: sensation of plantar aspect of foot | |||
**Muscle: tibialis posterior/flexor hallucis longus/flexor digitorum longus: Pain with passive extension of the toes | |||
*Superficial posterior | |||
**Nerve: sural cutaneous nerve: sensation of lateral aspect of foot | |||
**Muscle: gastrocnemius/soleus/plantaris: weakness of plantar flexion | |||
[[File:lower_leg_compartment.png|thumb|Lower Leg Compartment]] | |||
=== | ===Hand=== | ||
* | *Crush injury, with or with out associated fracture | ||
* | *Involved compartments: thenar, hypothenar, adductor pollicis, and 4 interossei muscles | ||
*Diagnosis | |||
* | **Clinical, not based on actual compartment pressure | ||
** | **Pain | ||
* | ***Deep, constant, poorly localized, out of proportion to exam | ||
** | **"Intrinsic minus" position at rest | ||
***MCP joint extended with proximal IP joint slightly flexed | |||
** | **Pain with passive stretch of involved compartmental muscles | ||
* | ***Interosseus: performed with MCP joint extended and PIP jionts fully flexed | ||
** | ***Thenar, hypothenar: performed by extension of MCP joint | ||
** | **Tense swelling of affected compartment | ||
* | |||
** | |||
* | |||
** | |||
** | |||
== | ===Forearm=== | ||
[[File:Forearm_compartments.jpg|thumb|forearm compartments]] | |||
* | *Associated with supracondylar fracture (peds), distal radius fracture (adults) | ||
* | *Compartments | ||
* | **Dorsal (highest risk) | ||
* | **Volar | ||
** | |||
== | ===Foot=== | ||
[[File:Compartments of the Foot.png|thumb|Compartments of the foot]] | |||
*Number of compartments is controversial, but at least 4, up to 9 | |||
**Medial, lateral, central, interosseous, adductor | |||
**Mechanism - crush injuries | |||
**Other mechanisms - foot surgery, Lisfranc fracture, cast immobilization, prolonged extremity positioning, snake bites, severe ankle sprains with arterial disruption<ref>Haddad, Steven L. Managing risk: Compartment syndromes of the foot. AAOS, 2007. http://www.aaos.org/news/bulletin/janfeb07/clinical1.asp</ref> | |||
**5-17% of calcaneus fractures result in compartment syndrome | |||
**Diagnosis | |||
***Pain out of proprtion | |||
***Pain worse with passive dorsiflexion (stretching intrinsic musculature of foot); concurrent metatarsal fracture cloud this finding | |||
***Do not rely on absent pulse or complete anesthesia, which are late findings | |||
***Measure absolute compartment pressures in [http://www.aaos.org/news/bulletin/janfeb07/clinical1.asp insertion sites found here] | |||
**Treatment | |||
***Elevate extremity to level of heart (above the heart, and there will be reduction of O2 perfusion) | |||
***SCDs may help decrease interstitial pressure, improve venous return/arterial flow | |||
***Fasciotomy within 24 hrs of injury if pressures > 30 mmHg | |||
[[Category: | ===Lumbar Paraspinal=== | ||
[[Category:Trauma]] | *Compartment enclosed on the lateral, dorsal and ventral aspects by thoracolumbar fascia and medial aspect by spinous processes and interspinous ligaments | ||
*Mechanisms | |||
**Direct trauma | |||
**Atraumatic mechanism (Heavy weight lifting) | |||
***Typically males in their 20's and 30's | |||
**Recent surgery causing compromised blood supply | |||
*Characteristics | |||
**Pain of the low back refractory to analgesia | |||
**Radiation of pain to the groin | |||
**Tender and tense lumbar paraspinal muscles | |||
**Loss of normal lumbar lordosis | |||
**Worsening of pain with hip flexion | |||
**Concurrent ileus in some cases | |||
*Diagnosis | |||
**Elevated CK | |||
**Elevated compartment pressures | |||
**Imaging not required | |||
***If imaging is performed, MRI is the test of choice | |||
***MRI will demonstrate enhancement of the paraspinal muscles on T2-weighted images | |||
***CT is less helpful, but can exclude other causes of low-back pain such as fracture | |||
*Treatment is with emergent fasciotomy and with fluid resuscitation for any concurrent rhabdomyolysis <ref>Alexander W. et al. Acute lumbar paraspinal compartment syndrome: a systematic review. ANZ Journal of Surgery. 2018; 88: 854-859.</ref> | |||
[[File:MRI Lumbar Paraspinal Compartment Syndrome.png|thumb|Magnetic resonance imaging (T1-weighted with gadolinium) showing edema and high signal intensity (arrows) in the region of the left multifidus and longissimus muscles.]] | |||
===Other=== | |||
*Thigh (quadriceps compartment) | |||
[[File:Compartments_of_the_Thigh.png|thumb|Compartments of the thigh]] | |||
*Buttock (gluteal compartment) | |||
*Arm (deltoid, biceps compartments) | |||
*Abdominal | |||
==Differential Diagnosis== | |||
{{Extremity trauma DDX}} | |||
{{Calf pain DDX}} | |||
==Evaluation== | |||
===Work-Up=== | |||
*X-ray to evaluate for fracture | |||
*[[Compartment pressure measurement]] (take serial measurements if needed) | |||
*Total CK ([[rhabdomyolysis]]) | |||
*Chemistry ([[hyperkalemia]]) | |||
{{Compartment Pressure Interpretation}} | |||
==Management== | |||
#Fasciotomy | |||
#*Perform as soon as diagnosis is made by history/physical or by measurement | |||
#*Permanent damage results from >8hr of ischemia | |||
#*Refer here for technique: http://www.wheelessonline.com/ortho/12806 | |||
#Support blood pressure in hypotensive patient | |||
#Place affected limb at the level of the heart or slightly dependent | |||
#AVOID ice (will further compromise microcirculation) | |||
#Bivalve or remove cast if present | |||
#Adequate analgesia | |||
#Management for associated [[rhabdomyolysis]] if present | |||
==Disposition== | |||
*Admit | |||
==See Also== | |||
*[[Compartment Pressure Measurement]] | |||
*[[Burns]] | |||
*[[Rhabdomyolysis]] | |||
*[[Fractures (Main)]] | |||
*[[Abdominal compartment syndrome]] | |||
==External Links== | |||
==References== | |||
<references/> | |||
[[Category:Orthopedics]] [[Category:Trauma]] |
Latest revision as of 21:45, 9 April 2020
Background
- Most commonly caused by tibia fracture (anterior compartment)
Compartment Syndrome Indications
- Consider whenever pain or paresthesia occurs in an extremity after:
- fracture (most common risk factor) - can occur with open fracture
- crush injury
- immobilization
- snake bites
- burns
- prolonged tourniquet application
- fluid extravasation into a limb
- soft tissue infection
- extreme exertion
- Immediate threat is viability of nerve and muscle; later threat is infection, gangrene, rhabdomyolysis, renal failure
Pathophysiology
- Tissue perfusion is difference between diastolic BP and compartment pressure
- As compartment pressure increases, tissue perfusion decreases
Etiologies
- Orthopedic
- Vascular
- Ischemic-reperfusion injury
- Hemorrhage
- Can be spontaneous in anticoagulated patients
- Iatrogenic
- Vascular puncture in anticoagulated patients
- IV/intra-arterial drug injection
- Constrictive casts
- Soft tissue injury
- Prolonged limb compression
- Crush injury
- Burn
- Snake bite
- Expanding hematoma
Clinical Features
General Symptoms
- Compartment is swollen, firm, tender with squeezing
- Usually develops soon after significant trauma
- May be delayed up to 48hr after the event
5 P's
- Classic signs of disruption in arterial flow, not of compartment syndrome
- Only found once arterial flow has stopped (very late finding)
- Pain (early finding)
- Severe, out of proportion to physical findings
- Worse with passive stretch of distal body part such as toes or fingers (muscle extension > increased volume > increased pressure)
- Often the presenting symptom.
- Paresthesia (early finding)
- Occurs in sensory distribution of affected nerve
- Pallor
- Paralysis: late finding
- Pulselessness: late finding
Lower Leg Specific Syndromes
- Anterior
- Nerve: deep fibular (peroneal): sensation of 1st webspace
- Muscle: tibialis anterior: foot/ankle dorsiflexion
- Lateral
- Nerve: superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve: sensation of lateral aspect of lower leg, dorsum of foot
- Muscle: peroneus longus and brevis: foot plantarflexion
- Deep posterior
- Nerve: posterior tibial nerve: sensation of plantar aspect of foot
- Muscle: tibialis posterior/flexor hallucis longus/flexor digitorum longus: Pain with passive extension of the toes
- Superficial posterior
- Nerve: sural cutaneous nerve: sensation of lateral aspect of foot
- Muscle: gastrocnemius/soleus/plantaris: weakness of plantar flexion
Hand
- Crush injury, with or with out associated fracture
- Involved compartments: thenar, hypothenar, adductor pollicis, and 4 interossei muscles
- Diagnosis
- Clinical, not based on actual compartment pressure
- Pain
- Deep, constant, poorly localized, out of proportion to exam
- "Intrinsic minus" position at rest
- MCP joint extended with proximal IP joint slightly flexed
- Pain with passive stretch of involved compartmental muscles
- Interosseus: performed with MCP joint extended and PIP jionts fully flexed
- Thenar, hypothenar: performed by extension of MCP joint
- Tense swelling of affected compartment
Forearm
- Associated with supracondylar fracture (peds), distal radius fracture (adults)
- Compartments
- Dorsal (highest risk)
- Volar
Foot
- Number of compartments is controversial, but at least 4, up to 9
- Medial, lateral, central, interosseous, adductor
- Mechanism - crush injuries
- Other mechanisms - foot surgery, Lisfranc fracture, cast immobilization, prolonged extremity positioning, snake bites, severe ankle sprains with arterial disruption[1]
- 5-17% of calcaneus fractures result in compartment syndrome
- Diagnosis
- Pain out of proprtion
- Pain worse with passive dorsiflexion (stretching intrinsic musculature of foot); concurrent metatarsal fracture cloud this finding
- Do not rely on absent pulse or complete anesthesia, which are late findings
- Measure absolute compartment pressures in insertion sites found here
- Treatment
- Elevate extremity to level of heart (above the heart, and there will be reduction of O2 perfusion)
- SCDs may help decrease interstitial pressure, improve venous return/arterial flow
- Fasciotomy within 24 hrs of injury if pressures > 30 mmHg
Lumbar Paraspinal
- Compartment enclosed on the lateral, dorsal and ventral aspects by thoracolumbar fascia and medial aspect by spinous processes and interspinous ligaments
- Mechanisms
- Direct trauma
- Atraumatic mechanism (Heavy weight lifting)
- Typically males in their 20's and 30's
- Recent surgery causing compromised blood supply
- Characteristics
- Pain of the low back refractory to analgesia
- Radiation of pain to the groin
- Tender and tense lumbar paraspinal muscles
- Loss of normal lumbar lordosis
- Worsening of pain with hip flexion
- Concurrent ileus in some cases
- Diagnosis
- Elevated CK
- Elevated compartment pressures
- Imaging not required
- If imaging is performed, MRI is the test of choice
- MRI will demonstrate enhancement of the paraspinal muscles on T2-weighted images
- CT is less helpful, but can exclude other causes of low-back pain such as fracture
- Treatment is with emergent fasciotomy and with fluid resuscitation for any concurrent rhabdomyolysis [2]
Other
- Thigh (quadriceps compartment)
- Buttock (gluteal compartment)
- Arm (deltoid, biceps compartments)
- Abdominal
Differential Diagnosis
Extremity trauma
- Compartment syndrome
- Contusion
- Crush syndrome
- Degloving injury
- Fracture
- Laceration
- Myositis ossificans
- Open joint injury
- Peripheral nerve injury
- Rhabdomyolysis
- Tendon injury
- Vascular injury
Calf pain
- Achilles tendon rupture
- Calcaneal bursitis
- Cellulitis
- Compartment syndrome
- Deep venous thrombosis (DVT)
- Distal leg fractures
- Gastrocnemius strain
- Ruptured popliteal cyst (Bakers cyst)
- Superficial thrombophlebitis
Evaluation
Work-Up
- X-ray to evaluate for fracture
- Compartment pressure measurement (take serial measurements if needed)
- Total CK (rhabdomyolysis)
- Chemistry (hyperkalemia)
Interpretation of Compartment Pressure
- Normal is <10 mm Hg
- Pressures <20 mmHg can be tolerated w/o significant damage
- Exact level of pressure elevation that causes cell death is unclear. It was previously thought pressure >30 mmHg was toxic although the "delta pressure" may be better predictor than absolute pressure
ΔPressure = [Diastolic Pressure] – [Compartment Pressure][3]
- ΔPressure < 30 mm Hg is suggestive of compartment syndrome
Management
- Fasciotomy
- Perform as soon as diagnosis is made by history/physical or by measurement
- Permanent damage results from >8hr of ischemia
- Refer here for technique: http://www.wheelessonline.com/ortho/12806
- Support blood pressure in hypotensive patient
- Place affected limb at the level of the heart or slightly dependent
- AVOID ice (will further compromise microcirculation)
- Bivalve or remove cast if present
- Adequate analgesia
- Management for associated rhabdomyolysis if present
Disposition
- Admit
See Also
- Compartment Pressure Measurement
- Burns
- Rhabdomyolysis
- Fractures (Main)
- Abdominal compartment syndrome
External Links
References
- ↑ Haddad, Steven L. Managing risk: Compartment syndromes of the foot. AAOS, 2007. http://www.aaos.org/news/bulletin/janfeb07/clinical1.asp
- ↑ Alexander W. et al. Acute lumbar paraspinal compartment syndrome: a systematic review. ANZ Journal of Surgery. 2018; 88: 854-859.
- ↑ Elliott, KGB. Diagnosing acute compartment syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003 Jul;85(5):625-32. PDF